The Life of Astronomer Claudius Ptolemy

The science of astronomy is one of humanitys oldest sciences. No one knows quite when the first people looked up and began to study the sky, but we do know that very early people began noting the sky thousands of years in the past. Written astronomical records were recorded in ancient times, often on tablets or walls or in artwork. That was when observers began charting what they saw in the sky. They didnt always understand what they observed, but realized that the skys objects move in periodic and predictable ways. Claudius Ptolemy with an armillary sphere he used to predict solstice dates and other celestial sights. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Claudius Ptolemy (often called Claudius Ptolemaeus, Ptolomaeus, Klaudios Ptolemaios, and simply Ptolemeus) was one of the earliest of these observers. He systematically charted the sky to help predict and explain the motions of the planets and stars. He was a scientist and philosopher who lived in Alexandria, Egypt nearly 2,000 years ago. Not only was he an astronomer, but he also studied geography and used what he learned to make detailed maps of the known world. We know very little of Ptolemys early life, including his birth and death dates. Historians have more information about his observations since they became the basis for later charts and theories. The first of his observations that can be dated exactly occurred on March 12, 127. His last recorded one was February 2, 141. Some experts think his life spanned the years 87 – 150. However long he lived, Ptolemy did much to advance science and appears to have been a very accomplished observer of the stars and planets.   We get a few clues about his background from his name: Claudius Ptolemy. Its a mixture of the Greek Egyptian Ptolemy and the Roman Claudius. Together, they indicate that his family was probably Greek and they had settled in Egypt (which was under Roman rule) for some time before his birth. Very little else is known about his origins.   Ptolemy, the Scientist Ptolemys work was quite advanced, considering that he didnt have the types of tools that astronomers rely on today. He lived in a time of naked eye observations; no telescopes existed to make his life easier. Among other topics. Ptolemy  wrote about the  Greek geocentric view  of the universe (which put Earth at the center of everything). That view seemed to quite nicely put humans at the center of things, as well, a notion that was hard to shake until Galileos time. Ptolemy also calculated the apparent motions of the known planets. He did this by synthesizing and extending the work of Hipparchus of Rhodes, an astronomer who came up with a system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain why Earth was the center of the solar system. Epicycles are small circles whose centers move around the circumferences of larger ones.  He used at least 80 of these tiny circular orbits  to explain the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known in his time. Ptolemy expanded this concept and made many fine calculations to fine-tune it.   This drawing by astronomer Jean Dominique Cassini was influenced by the epicycles that Ptolemy refined by his mathematics and observations of the sky. public domain This system came to be called the Ptolemaic System. It was the linchpin of the theories about objects motions in the sky for nearly a millennium and a half. It predicted the positions of the planets accurately enough for naked-eye observations, but it turned out to be wrong and too complicated. As with most other scientific ideas, simpler is better, and coming up with loopy circles wasnt a good answer to why planets orbit the way they do.   Ptolemy the Writer Ptolemy was also a prolific writer in the subjects and disciplined he studied. For astronomy, he described his system in his books that make up the  Almagest (also known as Mathematical Syntaxis). It was a 13-volume mathematical explanation of astronomy  containing information about the numerical and geometrical concepts behind the motions of the Moon and known planets. He also included a star catalog that contained 48 constellations (star patterns) he could observe, all with the same names that are still in use today. As a further example of some of his scholarship, he made regular observations of the sky at the time of the solstices and equinoxes, which allowed him to figure out the lengths of the seasons. From this information, he then went on to try and describe the motion of the Sun around our planet. Of course, he was wrong because the Sun does not orbit Earth. But, without more knowledge of the solar system, it would have been very difficult for him to know that. However, his systematic approach to charting and measuring sky events and objects was among the first scientific attempts to explain what happens in the sky. The Ptolemaic System was the accepted wisdom about the motions of the solar system bodies and the importance of Earth in that system for centuries. In 1543, the Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric view which put the Sun at the center of the solar system. The heliocentric calculations he came up with for the movement of planets were further improved by Johannes Keplers laws of motion. Interestingly, some people doubt that Ptolemy truly believed his own system, rather he merely used it as a method of calculating positions. A page of Ptolemys Almagest translated and reproduced by Edward Ball Knobel. public domain   Ptolemy was also very important in the history of geography and cartography. He was well aware that Earth is a sphere and was the first cartographer to project the spherical shape of the planet onto a flat plane. His work, Geography  remained the principal work on the subject until the time of Columbus. It contained amazingly accurate information for the time and given the difficulties of mapping that all cartographers raced. But it did have some problems, including an overestimated size and extent of the Asian landmass. Some scholars think that the maps Ptolemy created may have been a deciding factor in Columbuss decision to sail west for the Indies and ultimately discover the continents of the western hemisphere. Fast Facts about Ptolemy Not much is known about Ptolemys early life. He was a Greek citizen living in Alexandria, Egypt.Ptolemy was a cartographer and geography, and also worked in mathematics.Ptolemy was also an avid skygazer. Sources Claudius Ptolemy, www2.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Pm.html.â€Å"Claudius Ptolemy.†Ã‚  Ptolemy (about 85-about 165), www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Ptolemy.html.â€Å"Notable People.†Ã‚  Who Was Claudius Ptolemy, microcosmos.uchicago.edu/ptolemy/people.html.? Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen

How Hydration Care For Elderly Inpatients ( ≥ 65 Years Old )

This chapter will review, analyse and critically appraise the literature surrounding hydration care for elderly inpatients (≠¥65 years old) (See the eligibility in Appendix C: the summary table of the key evidence). A total of five papers have been reviewed (Appendix C). Those chosen were: Johnstone, Alexander and Hickey (2015), El-Sharkawy et al. (2015), Godfrey et al. (2012), Wakefield et al. (2009) and Ullrich and Mccutcheon (2008). Three papers used multiple methods while the study design in all papers includes an observational method. One of the studies took place in the United States of America (USA) and one took place in Australia whereas three studies took place in the United Kingdom. It could be argued that despite differences in overall health structure, hydration is global concern and the care in both of these western countries are broadly similar to that of the UK (Robertson, Gregory and Jabbal, 2014; Roe and Liberman, 2007). For those reasons, the choice of studies maximizes the possibility of data generalization. The themes identified were, hydration Identification and assessment, culture and attitude in hydration care, health-promotion strategies. It has been identified that five studies with various design on the topic, none involving randomized comparisons. Results were mixed: all studies involved hydration factors; three favoured nursing care strategies based on social, functional, environmental, culture and attitude with slightly different focus; twoShow MoreRelatedManagement of Fluid Overload in Chronic Renal Failure4584 Words   |  19 Pagesthe gradual loss of kidney function (McCarthy, et al 2009). The number of patients suffering from CRF in United Kingdom (UK) is rising rapidly. Ferenbach and Wood (2005, p.16) state that in UK, about 6000 people are commencing dialysis treatment per year. Fluid overload is a frequently observed finding in renal failure patients. About one third of the patients receiving dialysis for Chronic Renal Failure have fluid overload despite advice to rest rict their oral fluid intake (Roderick, et al 2004).Read MoreCommunity Acquired Pneumonia18251 Words   |  74 PagesNurses play a key role in patient recovery from CAP. Positioning the client in bed, auscultating patient’s chest for abnormal breath sounds, administering due medications as ordered by the physician and assisting patient to have enough hydration are some of the nursing care management a nurse can render to this kind of patient. (Mandell, 2007) Immunization against influenza and increasingly resistant pneumococci can play a critical role in preventing pneumonia, particularly in immunocompromised andRead MoreHesi Practice31088 Words   |  125 Pagesliquids 2 hours before meals. D. drink liquids only between meals. 6. A client seeks care for low back pain of 2 weeks duration. Which assessment finding suggests a herniated intervertebral disk? A. Pain that radiates down the posterior thigh. B. Back pain when the knees are flexed. C. Atrophy of the lower leg muscles. D. Positive Homans sign. 7. A client has approached the nurse asking for advice on how to deal with his alcohol addiction. The nurse should tell the client that the only effectiveRead MoreMedicare Policy Analysis447966 Words   |  1792 PagesI 111TH CONGRESS 1ST SESSION H. R. 3962 To provide affordable, quality health care for all Americans and reduce the growth in health care spending, and for other purposes. IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OCTOBER 29, 2009 Mr. DINGELL (for himself, Mr. RANGEL, Mr. WAXMAN, Mr. GEORGE MILLER of California, Mr. STARK, Mr. PALLONE, and Mr. ANDREWS) introduced the following bill; which was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce, and in addition to the Committees on Education

The Effective Leader Andrew Carnegie free essay sample

Leadership effectiveness report – Andrew Carnegie In this report, I will introduce an effective leader Andrew Carnegie, a famous entrepreneur who led the steel industry to expanse and develop in whole America in the late 19th century. This Scottish-American man achieved in being the richest industrialist in early 20th century by starting his first job as a bobbin factory worker, after years of effort, he built his Carnegie Steel Company, which later on merged with Federal Steel Company and several small companies to form the U. service writing in military S. Steel. In U. S. , together with the â€Å"Petroleum Emperor† Rockefeller, â€Å"Auto Emperor† Ford and other famous tycoons, the â€Å"Steel Magnate† Andrew Carnegie maintained the place of world’s largest steel company and almost monopolized the whole industry in America for decades. After making huge success in his business, he chose to donate almost his all fortune to philanthropy and turned interest to education. Undoubtedly Andrew Carnegie became the hero of American and led them to achieve enterprise goals According to John Gardner’s book On Leadership, nine roles and tasks of leadership was listed, which include envisioning goals, affirming values, motivating, managing, achieving workable unity, explaining, serving as a symbol representing the group and renewing. In this section, the reasons for why Andrew Carnegie is an effective leader will be provided. Envisioning goals As an effective leader, he or she must have the ability to create a vision, identify goals and provide solutions to problems. In 1863 the civil war fueled the iron industry and after the war was over, Andrew Carnegie resigned from the Pennsylvania Railway because he saw the potential in this field during the war. The reason why Carnegie turned to devote his life in to steel industry and then earned his fortune was that he not only focused on the present but also looked into the future and envisioned goals. Serving as a symbol Perhaps the most obvious and significant role to be an effective leader is serving as a symbol. On one hand, it is certain that Carnegie was the greatest leader and symbol of the steel industry. For what he had been contributed to the development and expansion, Carnegie was the Steel Emperor in American history undoubtedly. On the other hand, no one can deny he was also a symbol for serving as generous philanthropist among the rich. After Carnegie sold all his steel holdings to J. P. Morgan, he turned to hammer at building libraries, funding to schools. Everything he did was the reflection of his leadership and his steel industry. Renewing There is no doubt that Andrew owned the ability of renewing. Before civil war, Andrew Carnegie quitted his job and invested all his assets to build his first company Keystone Bridge Works in 1862. However, since from July 4, 1863, the both sides of the civil war began using the warships, Carnegie realized how important the steel is. Once he travelled to Europe, Andrew was inspired by Henry Bessemer’s breakthrough technology of making steel. Since then he devoted his entire mind to the iron business after coming back to America. Through this transform, it believes that Andrew Carnegie was challenging the status quos and encouraging the responsiveness to change. Motivating In 1898, Andrew Carnegie wrote his book â€Å"The Gospel of Wealth†, in which he advanced the notion that the rich should use their resources and wealth to help and enrich society. Two year later, he accepted J. P. Morgan’s offer which he would buy all his steel holdings for the price of $480 million dollars. Since then he began to devote his energies to philanthropy especially on education. The major philanthropic contribution includes funding for the establishment of more than 2,800 libraries, Carnegie Hero Fund Commission (1904), Carnegie Endowment for the Advancement of Teaching (1905) and so on. According to John Gardner’s leadership roles of motivating, Carnegie motives the people from two ways: the young are motivated to achieve their life goals and the rich are motivated to contribute the wealth to society. In order to know more about the leadership style and behavior of Andrew Carnegie, using behavior approach to analysis is a good choice since behavioral basis for researching leadership shows that some certain leadership behaviors are more effective than others in various situations. The next I will use two different leadership models to discuss. At first, according to the Likert’s systems model, there are four systems developed from factors of concern for people and concern for production, which respectively are autocratic, benevolent, participative and democratic. And Carnegie belonged to the participative leader. It must be pointed out that Carnegie owned most his success to that he had employed a group of talents that were skillful and also knew how to manage. He concerned on people and trusted them, but also kept control of decisions. Besides, the Leadership Grid developed by Blake and Mouton is also a useful model to analysis Carnegie’s leadership behavior and style. During the way Carnegie led steel industry to expanse and develop, his style on the grid is nearly (9, 9), a kind of â€Å"team management† style. Nowadays, people often quoted one of his famous saying: if I ruin all my plant equipment, materials, as long as keep my whole class people, I will still be a steel emperor a few years later. As it is known to us all, Andrew Carnegie is the Steel Magnate of 20th century and also a great and respected philanthropist. It is undeniably that his fortune, achievement and philanthropy contributing vastly to the American society . Through his recipe to successful leadership roles that include fostering the process of renewal, the eloquent explaining ability, serving as symbol and motivating spirit, which fit the theories of John Gardner’s leadership roles and tasks, Andrew Carnegie was fully worthy of an effective leader.

Social, Economical, And Political Effects Of World War I Essay Example For Students

Social, Economical, And Political Effects Of World War I Essay Everywhere in the world was heard the sound of things breaking. Advanced European societies could not support long wars or so many thought prior to World War I. They were right in a way. The societies could not support a long war unchanged. The First World War left no aspect of European civilization untouched as pre-war governments were transformed to fight total war. The war metamorphed Europe socially, politicaly, economically, and intellectualy. European countries channeled all of their resources into total war which resulted in enormous social change. The result of working together for a common goal seemed to be unifying European societies. Death knocked down all barriers between people. All belligerents had enacted some form of a selective service which levelled classes in many ways. Wartime scarcities made luxury an impossibility and unfavorable. Reflecting this, clothing became uniform and utilitarian. Europeans would never again dress in fancy, elaborate costumes. Uniforms le d the way in clothing change. The bright blue-and-red prewar French infantry uniforms had been changed after the first few months of the war, since they made whoever wore them into excellent targets for machine guns. Womens skirts rose above the ankle permanently and women became more of a part of societythan ever. They undertook a variety of jobs previously held by men. They were now a part of clerical, secretarial work, and teaching. They were also more widely employed in industrial jobs. By 1918, 37.6 percent of the work force in the Krupp armaments firm in Germany wasfemale. In England the proportion of women works rose strikingly inpublic transport (for example, from 18,000 to 117,000 bus conductors),banking (9,500 to 63,700), and commerce (505,000 to 934,000). Manyrestrictions on women disappeared during the war. It became acceptable for young, employed, single middle-class women to have their own apartments, to go out without chaperones, and to smoke in public. It was only a matter of time before women received the right to vote in many belligerent countries. Strong forces were shaping the power and legal status of labor unions, too. The right of workers to organize was relatively new, about half a century. Employers fought to keep union organizers out of their plants and armed force was often used against striking workers. The universal rallying of workers towards their flag at the beginning of the war led to wider acceptance of unions. It was more of a bureaucratic route than a parliamentary route that integrated organized labor into government, however. A long war was not possible without complete cooperation of the workers with respect to putting in longers hours and increasing productivity. Strike activity had reached its highest levels in history just before the war. There had been over 1,500 diffent work stoppages in France and 3,000 in Germany during 1910. More than a million British workers stopped at one time or another in 1912. In Britain, Fr ance, and Germany, deals were struck between unions and government to eliminate strikes and less favorable work conditions in exchange for immediate integration into the government process. This integration was at the cost of having to act more as managers of labor than as the voice of the labor. Suddenly, the strikes stopped during the first year of the war. Soon the enthusiasm died down, though. The revival of strike activity in 1916 shows that the social peace was already wearing thin. Work stoppages and the number of people on strike in France quadrupled in 1916 compared to 1915. In Germany, in May 1916, 50,000 Berlin works held a three-day walkout to protest the arrest of the pacifist Karl Liebknecht. By the end of the war most had rejectedthe government offer of being integrated in the beaurocracy, but notwithout playing an important public role and gaining some advantages such as collective bargaining. The war may have had a leveling effect in many ways, but it also sharpened some social differences and conflicts. Soldiers were revolting just like workers:They were no longer willing to sacrifice theirlives when shirkers at home were earning all the money, tkaing, the women around in cars, cornering all the best jobs, and while so many profiteers were waxing rich. The draft was not completely fair since ot all men were sent to thetrenches. Skilled workers were more important to industry and some could secure safe assignments at home. Unskilled young males and junior officers paid with their lives the most. The generation conflict was also widened by the war as Veterens disillusionment fed off of anger towards the older generation for sending them to the trenches.. Governments took on many new powers in order to fight the total war. War governments fought opposition by increasing police power. Authoritatian regimes like tsarist Russia had always depended on the threat of force, but now even parliamentary governments felt the necessity to expand police po wers and control public opinion. Britain gave police powers wide scope in August 1914 by the Defence of the Realm Act which authorized the public authorities to arrest and punish dissidents under martial law if necessary. Through later acts polices powers grew to include suspending newspapers and the ability to intervene in a citizens private life in the use of lights at home, food consumption, and bar hours. Police powers tended to grow as the war went on and public opposition increased as well. In France a sharp rise of strikes, mutinies, and talk of a negotiated peace raised doubts about whether France could really carry on the war in 1917. A group of French political leaders decided to carry out the war at the cost of less internal liberty. The government cracked down on anyone suspected of supporting a compromise peace. Many of the crackdowns and treason charges were just a result of war hysteria or calculated politcal opportunism. Expanded police powers also included control o f public information and opinion. The censorship of newspapers and personal mail was already an established practice. Governments regularly used their power to prevent disclosure of military secrets and the airing of dangerous opinions considering war efforts. Theother side of using police power on public opinion was the organizing of enthusiasm, which could be thought of as:Propaganda tries to force a doctrine on the whole people;the organization embraces within its scope only those who do not threaten on psychological grounds to become a brake on the further dissemination of the idea. World War I provided a place for the birth of propaganda which countries used with even more frightening results during World War II. Governments used the media to influence people to enlist and to brainwash them war into supporting the war. The French prime minister used his power to draft journalists or defer them in exchange for favorable coverage. The German right created a new mass party, the Fa therland Party. It was backed by secret funds from the army and was devoted to propaganda for war discipline. By 1918, the Fatherland Party was larger than the Social Democratic Party. Germany had become quite effective at influencing the masses. Electrocardiogram EssayThe early part of the war satisfied the fascination with speed, violence, and the machine as manifested in the pre-war Futurists. Many movements shared a resolute modernist contempt for all academic styles in the arts, a hatred for bourgeois culture, and a commitment to the free expression of individuals. All these feelings were given an additional jolt of violence and anger by the horrors of the wartime experience. During the war there was a loss of illusions as described in All Quiet on the Western Front. Poets, like others, had gone to war in 1914 believing in heroism and nobility. Trench warfare hardened and embittered many. Freud said of disillusionment:When I speak of disillusionment, everyone will know atonce what i mean. One need not be a sentimentalist; one may perceive the biological and psychological necessity for surrering in the economy of human life, and yet condemn war both in its means and ends and long for the cessation of all wars. British p oet, Wilfred Own, who was killed in 1918 was transformed from a young romantic into a powerful denouncer of those who had sent young men off to war. In Dulce et Decorum Est he mocked the old lie that it was good to die for ones country, after giving a searing description of a gassed soldier coughing out his lungs. The anger of the soldier-poets was directed against those who had sent them to the war, not their enemy. The war experience did not produce new art forms or styles. It acted largely to make the harshest themes and the grimmest or most mocking forms of expression of prewar intellectual life seem more appropriate, and to fost experiments in opposition to the dominant values of contemporary europe. The Dada movement, which mocked old values and ridiculed stuffy bourgeois culture, was one of these movements. A mood of desolation and emptiness prevailed at the end of a war where great sacrifice had brought little gain. It was not clear where post-war anger would be focused, but it would definately be in antibourgeois politics. The echoes of a world shattering were heard throughout the world as Europe collapsed into total war. These echoes were the sound of change as Europe was transformed socially, politicaly, economically, and intellectualy into a machine of complete destruction. Europe would never be the same again.